The synthesis of efficient and environmentally friendly persulfate (PS) catalysts is currently a prominent research focus. This study employs single-step carbonization to investigate the interactions between endogenous mineral components (EMCs) and N-doping of nitrogen-rich biomassBiomass is a complex biological organic or non-organic solid product derived from living or recently living organism and available naturally. Various types of wastes such as animal manure, waste paper, sludge and many industrial wastes are also treated as biomass because like natural biomass these More, aiming to design efficient biochar-based catalysts for enhanced tetracycline (TC) degradation. Biochars (PBC and SBC) derived from peanut hulls (PHpH is a measure of how acidic or alkaline a substance is. A pH of 7 is neutral, while lower pH values indicate acidity and higher values indicate alkalinity. Biochars are normally alkaline and can influence soil pH, often increasing it, which can be beneficial More) and soybean curd residue (SCR) with similar EMCs (ashAsh is the non-combustible inorganic residue that remains after organic matter, like wood or biomass, is completely burned. It consists mainly of minerals and is different from biochar, which is produced through incomplete combustion.   Ash Ash is the residue that remains after the complete More ratio 16:19) but varying nitrogen content (1 % vs 1.53 %) were achieved, along with melamine-N-doped PBC (PBCN) for comparison under identical conditions. Physicochemical and quantum-chemistry analyses were conducted to investigate the synergistic effects between EMCs and organic-nitrogen in terms of morphological structures, active sites, and catalytic persulfate (PS)-mediated degradation of TC. The findings revealed that the optimal synthesis temperature for the efficient biochar-based catalyst was 800 °C. In contrast to exogenous N-doping with higher N-content (7.81 %), organic-N accelerated lattice disruption, leading to enhanced interactions with EMCs and resulting in the formation of hierarchical structures and pyrrole-N (organic-N 43.44 % > exogenous-N 17.67 %). The SBC/PS system exhibited superior degradation capability, with rapid removal of 95 % in 100 mg·L-1 TC. Density functional theory (DFT) confirmed that the non-radical pathways including 1O2 and electron transfer, facilitated by the presence of CO and pyrrole-N, were responsible for binding PS and forming biochar-PS*. This study furnishes both experimental data and theoretical insights, supporting the targeted control and efficient advancement of eco-friendly, high-value biochar-based catalysts.

Tetracycline (TC), a common antibiotic used for the prevention and treatment of infectious diseases, is widely used in the livestock and agricultural sectors as a growth promoter added to feed due to its good efficacy and low cost. However, when TC is introduced into organisms through medication and feed, it cannot be fully absorbed and utilized. Although its over-the-counter therapeutic use has been completely banned, past misuse of TC has led to its continued prevalence in the environment, where it accumulates in large quantities, thus causing antibiotic contamination of water bodies and seriously jeopardizing human health.

In recent years, persulfate (PS)-induced advanced oxidation has gained prominence among various treatment methods. It boasts a higher oxidation potential (2.5–3.1 V), a longer half-life (30–40 μs), and enhanced stability during transport and storage, establishing itself as a prevalent technology for organic pollutant removal. At its core, this method revolves around the activation of PS. Current activation methods are primarily classified into homogeneous and non-homogeneous techniques. Homogeneous catalytic technology is known for its minimal by-products and high degradation efficiency. Nevertheless, it faces practical limitations due to high energy consumption in methods like heating, ultraviolet light, and microwaving, the need for additional pH adjustment during alkali activation, and the potential leachingLeaching is the process where nutrients are dissolved and carried away from the soil by water. This can lead to nutrient depletion and environmental pollution. Biochar can help reduce leaching by improving nutrient retention in the soil.   More of metal ions in transition metal catalysis. In contrast, the utilization of non-metallic carbonaceous materials such as activated carbonActivated carbon is a form of carbon that has been processed to create a vast network of tiny pores, increasing its surface area significantly. This extensive surface area makes activated carbon exceptionally effective at trapping and holding impurities, like a molecular sponge. It is commonly More, graphene, nanodiamonds, carbon nanotubes, and biochar as non-homogeneous PS catalysts has garnered significant attention from researchers. These materials offer the advantage of easy separation and reuse, making them more versatile and convenient for widespread application. It’s noteworthy that among the various carbonaceous materials, biochar derived from waste biomass has emerged as an environmentally friendly candidate for waste treatment and has sparked the interest of researchers. Biochar exhibits significant potential for catalyzing PS activity, owing to its abundant surface functional groups, adjustable specific surface area (SSA), and intricate porosityPorosity of biochar is a key factor in its effectiveness as a soil amendment and its ability to retain water and nutrients. Biochar’s porosity is influenced by feedstock type and pyrolysis temperature, and it plays a crucial role in microbial activity and overall soil health. Biochar More.

Biochar is a carbon-rich porous solid substance created through the pyrolysisPyrolysis is a thermochemical process that converts waste biomass into bio-char, bio-oil, and pyro-gas. It offers significant advantages in waste valorization, turning low-value materials into economically valuable resources. Its versatility allows for tailored products based on operational conditions, presenting itself as a cost-effective and efficient More of carbon-rich biomass under oxygen-free or low-oxygen conditions. The physicochemical and catalytic properties of biochar can vary depending on the type of biomass used. Our current research has revealed that despite their relatively small proportion in biomass, endogenous mineral components (EMCs) play a significant role. EMCs not only act as natural pore-forming template agents, promoting the development of layered porous structures during pyrolysis, but they also create effective pathways for matrix diffusion, resulting in a substantial number of exposed catalytic sites for adsorption and degradation. Additionally, they catalyze the structural transformation of pyrolyzed carbonaceous materials through dehydration reactions between functional groups of cellulose and plant proteins. This leads to the generation of surface groups, thereby enhancing the catalytic activity of biochar. Nonetheless, the role of EMCs at different temperatures remains unclear, and the specific mechanisms by which EMCs operate with various types of biomass are still unknown